stereotying - cognitive process; attributing traits/characteristics to an entire group
prejudice - emotional reaction; negative emotional response to a group or group's characteristics
discrimination - behavior; negative or unfair behavior directed toward a group and its behaviors

Cognitions about Groups
categorization - cognitive shortcut of placing things into groups
---> doing this with individuals is social categorization
---> emotional involvement is how social categorization is different from regular ---> we have to place self into group(s) as well!

Ingroup vs. Outgroup Membership
outgroup homogeneity - all members who are not part of our group are the same
ingroup differentiation - members of our own group are individual and different from others

Stereotype Formation
stereotypes are really just negative schemas (cognitive misers!)
---> they help us feel better about our group
---> meeting someone who contradicts a stereotype puts them into a subtype category rather than changing our perception of the group they belong to (Perseverance Effect)
---> stereotypes are difficult/not likely to change because of the Perseverance Effect
stereotyping in children: experiment to categorize black/white dolls
---> some say that experiment is demonstration of ingroup favoritism (liking familiarity) rather than outgroup hostility
---> debate about how early these cognitions start

Prejudice
prejudiced people believe specific group has an essence --> negative emotions are reaction, but shown in different ways
---> anger, disgust, fear, pity, envy are main 5
---> discrimination may be different depending on emotion
triggers (happen below awareness level; similar to classical cognition)
---> Incindental Feelings - pre-existing feeling attributed to group after the fact (ex. disliking old people because 8AM friday morning stat class professor is 80)
---> Implicit Association - associating negative feeling brought about by situation; cannot be easily explained, assessed, or changed

Where Prejudice Comes From
Threat to Ingroup - outgroup seen as undermining specific needs (Social Comparison Theory)
Threat to Self-Esteem - need to create downward comparisons to make group seem better
Realistic Conflict Theory - groups competing over scarce or valued resources (Robbers Cave Study)
Us. vs. Them Effect - tend to avoid members of devalued groups; desire for power/ to maintain position causes people to dislike and compete with other groups (developed after Holocaust to consider how Germans could participate in it)
Social Learning - prejudice generalized to entire group through direct experience, vicarious learning

Discrimination
negative actions towards people in a different social group
---> blatant discrimination is less common today (since it is now illegal)
---> some argue that it has been replaced by Modern Racism, where people think that minorities are given preferential treatment which gives out negative effects. Measured by Bona Fide Pipeline

Gender Stereotypes
each gender has positive and negative stereotypes associated with it
Benevolent Sexism - treating women "better" in workplace, esp by male supervisors; subliminally giving women the idea that they cannot advance while not giving them the opportunity to do so
The Glass Ceiling - inability for women to advance to executive positions; negative experiences women have at top if they get there
---> The Glass Escalator - men in female-dominated fields tend to move up more quickly than women
Differential Respect - people respect the same behaviors more in men than in women
Tokenism - one instance of person breaking through barrier is indication for people to argue that sexism/racism is not longer a problem
---backfire of Affirmative Action

Countering Prejudice
Contact Hypothesis
Recategorization - Common In-group Identity Model - people who see ingroup as more inclusive and indicative of society are less likely to be prejudiced
Guilt and Collective Guilt (ex. whites today's feelings about slavery of past)
Just Say "No" - classically condition self to stop being prejudiced
---> is debatable and relatively new
Social Influence - belonging to a more tolerant group can make a person more tolerant over time

The Backfire to Countering Prejudice
ex. Affirmative Action
---> fairness vs. inclusion - framing sends different messages to employees
---> equity vs. equality - reward proportional to input vs. giving everyone the same rewards
ex. Ebonics as separate language to give students extra accommodations